Key words

This is the dispersion of a group of people outside of their homeland and among many countries. For example, after being exiled from the Land of Israel, Jews lived in the Diaspora in countries such as Yemen, Spain and Italy.

Exile is the state of being forced to leave one’s land by foreign rulers and being barred from returning. For example, after the destruction of the Temple in 70 CE, the Romans forced the Jews to leave Israel and live in exile.

The modern era is regarded as the historical period that followed the Middle Ages. It is commonly divided into two periods: the early modern era, which is commonly recognised to have begun with Columbus’ discovery of America in 1492 and lasted until around the end of the eighteenth century; and the late modern era from the eighteenth century until the present day. Notable historical milestones in the early modern era are the end of feudalism, the Age of Exploration, the Protestant Reformation, the American Revolution, the French Revolution and the Scientific Revolution. Ideas of secularisation, enlightenment and the nation-state were developed during this time. The late modern era is marked by the Industrial Revolution, European imperialism and the rise of two opposing political movements: modern nationalism and modern democracy.

The Crusades were religious wars and military campaigns to conquer the Holy Land from the Muslims. In 1096, masses responded to Pope Urban II’s call to set out on the First Crusade in order to redeem Jerusalem and the Holy Sepulchre (the site where Jesus was buried and resurrected according to Christian tradition). On their way, the Crusaders carried out massacres of the Jews of Ashkenaz (Germany), in what were later named the Rhineland Massacres (Gzerot Tatnu). After their successful conquest of the Holy Land, the Crusaders established the Crusader Kingdom, which existed for approximately 200 years until the Sixth, and last, Crusade.

Dhimmi is the legal status of non-Muslims living in Muslim countries. It was generally used to describe Jews and Christians, who were considered “People of the Book,” namely, members of religions that had holy books and revelations that preceded the arrival of Mohammed. This legal status was detailed in the Pact of Omar, an agreement regulating the activities of non-Muslims from, allegedly, the seventh century. On the one hand, the dhimmi, as non-believers, were subject to discriminatory laws, were considered second-class residents, and had to pay special taxes. On the other hand, this status guaranteed protection and economic and religious freedom to Jews and Christians.

This was a period in the Middle Ages when Spain was under Muslim rule (around eighth–twelfth centuries) and the Jews were generally accepted into society and flourished politically, culturally and economically.

Privileges were a framework or arrangement that determined the status of the Jews and the relationship between the Jewish community and the ruler in European countries. The Jews were given no choice about receiving the so-called privileges, which were granted in order to enable the ruler to benefit from Jewish businesses and funds.  The privileges gave Jews permission to live in the Christian lands belonging to the rulers and to work in professions that were denied to Christians, such as moneylending. The Jews were also granted legal autonomy and protection and, for this reason, often lived in separate quarters, usually close to the ruler’s palace. In contrast to the modern use of the word “privilege,” these were not rights and were not necessarily positive for the Jews, sometimes causing additional restrictions and antagonism.

Blood libels were false allegations that Jews used the blood of Christians for religious rituals. These accusations were commonplace in the Christian world during both the Middle Ages and the Modern Era. Some blood libels, such as the Damascus Affair, also took place in the Muslim world.

In 1290 Jews were expelled from England and were prohibited to live in the country until the 17th century. Until the 17th century, a small number of Jews had been living in England as “Hidden Jews” who were not permitted to practice their faith openly. In the mid-1650s, during the rule of Oliver Cromwell, Jews were allowed to return to England to form a community and to practice their Judaism freely. Nevertheless, resettlement did not happen without much debate in England and neither did it grant equal rights to the Jews of the country.

In 1648 the Cossacks led by Bohdan Chmielnicki rebelled against Polish rule. During the uprising, the Cossacks murdered tens of thousands of Jews and destroyed about 300 Jewish communities. The event became known as the riots of 1648–1649 and was one of the most traumatic events of Jewish history prior to the Holocaust.

Cossacks are a people who live in an area north of the Black Sea in what is western Ukraine today. They are descended from Slavic tribes who were known as excellent warriors and cavalry and defended these areas from invasions by Tatar and Turkish tribes.

Hasidism is a movement of religious and social renewal that developed in Eastern Europe in the mid-eighteenth century and exists to this day. It is based on ideas of Kabbalah, according to which God is present everywhere and can therefore be approached by anyone at any time or place. Hasidism emerged against the background of social, political and economic crises in the Kingdom of Poland that also affected the Jews. The first leader of the Hasidic movement was Rabbi Yisrael Baal Shem Tov and his students then developed and disseminated his ideas.

Kabbalah is a Jewish teaching that deals with the ways in which God is revealed to people and the ways in which people can approach God. The central book of Kabbalah is the Zohar.

The Mitnagdim were the Jews who opposed the Hasidic movement in the eighteenth century. They were headed by the Vilna Gaon who saw Hasidism as a grave danger to Judaism and ruled that its followers were heretics who must be excommunicated. Today the term Mitnagdim is used to refer to ultra-Orthodox Ashkenazi Jews who are not Hasidim or so-called Jerusalemite descendants of members of the old Yishuv.

A niggun is a song sung by Hasidim at the Shabbat table and at important events such as weddings. Each Hasidic “court” has its own melodies, composed by either the Rebbe himself or the “court.” Many Hasidim also have choirs that sing these melodies.

Tisch is the Yiddish word for table and refers to the Shabbat or holiday table of the Rebbe, around which his followers gather. During a tisch, the Rebbe delivers Divrei Torah (Torah lessons) and distributes small pieces of food from his plate to his followers, and together they sing niggunim from their “court.”

The Declaration was drafted by the French National Assembly during the period of the French revolution and detailed human civil rights. This document was not only intended to refer to the rights of French citizens but to detail the universal rights of man.

Emancipation was a general progressive effort to achieve freedom and equal rights for previously limited minorities. Jewish emancipation was an external and internal process of removing the medieval restrictions on the Jews. This changed the status of the Jews that were previously viewed only as a community in the eyes of the rulers and general society to free citizens with equal rights. The process of acquiring emancipation was a long process that occurred gradually between the 18th and early 20th century in the different European countries.

Cantonists were underage sons of conscripts in the Russian Empire. From 1721 on they were educated in special "canton schools"  for future military service. The canton schools were eventually abolished in 1857.

The Pale of Settlement was the region in the western part of the Russian Empire where the Jews were allowed to live.  The Pale included Belarus, Lithuania, Moldova, much of Ukraine, Eastern Latvia, Eastern Poland, and parts of Western Russia. The boundaries of the Pale of Settlement were first determined in 1791 following the division of Poland and changed according to the Tzar’s policies. Even within the Pale of Settlement, there were restrictions on Jewish settlement. In some cases, villages were off-limits to Jews, who were forced to live in the towns and cities; in other cases, it was the opposite. Jews were forced to live in the Pale of Settlement and prohibited from living in other regions of the Russian Empire until the beginning of World War I and the fall of the Russian Empire.

A medieval Spanish Jew who outwardly converted to Catholicism, usually in order to avoid persecution from either the Spanish Inquisition or the Portuguese Inquisition.

At the end of the seventeenth century and during the eighteenth century, European thinkers emerged who saw themselves as “sons of light” –  people who fought the cultural darkness they saw as characterising the Middle Ages. These leaders of the philosophical movement, which became known as the Enlightenment, believed in the power of reason and based their words on rational and scientific thinking rather than on religious beliefs. They wrote books explaining their opposition to the concentration of power in the hands of the king, the relationship between the citizen and the state, and the nature of humans. One of the philosophers identified with the Enlightenment movement is Immanuel Kant, who called for the liberation of people from all authority dictating what they should think.

The Haskalah (the Jewish Enlightenment movement) emerged in Germany in the mid-eighteenth century under the influence of the ideas of the Enlightenment, which emphasised individuals, their good and their freedom. Enlightened Jews aspired to change Jewish society by providing Jews with education and knowledge and promoting their integration in the countries in which they lived. One of the thinkers associated with the Haskalah was Moses Mendelssohn.

Neo-orthodoxy is a worldview that sees no contradiction between living according to the Torah and Jewish law (halacha) and embracing modernity and the acquisition of secular education. This approach was initiated by Rabbi Samson Raphael Hirsch, who coined the slogan “Torah with Derech Eretz (the way of the land)” which formalised the relationship between traditional Judaism and the modern world.

Orthodoxy is an approach to Judaism that is based on the belief in the eternal nature of the Torah and a commitment to Jewish law (halacha). The changes that took place in the Jewish world in the modern era and the effects of secularisation and reform provoked a backlash among Jews who sought to strengthen the observance of the mitzvot (commandments) and obedience to the rabbis. There are many streams of Orthodox Judaism which vary in their attitudes toward integration into the modern world, support for the State of Israel, the status of women and more. 

The Reform movement emerged in the late eighteenth century against the background of changes in the legal status of Jews in European countries and the influence of the ideas of the Enlightenment. Its founders sought to adapt Judaism to the modern world and argued that many traditional commandments had lost their original meaning and that Judaism should be “reformed” or modernised. They incorporated into the synagogue elements from the surrounding society such as playing the organ and having a choir. There are various streams within the Reform movement which differ according to the level and intensity of their attitudes toward modernisation.

The Board of Deputies is the largest representative body of British Jewry. It was officially founded in 1760 and was active in the struggle for the rights of British Jews. After Jews had attained emancipation, the committee expanded its activities to assist Jewish communities in distress outside the United Kingdom and continues these worldwide humanitarian activities today. Sir Moses Montefiore and subsequent members of his family served as presidents of the Board of Deputies for much of the nineteenth century.

The post of chief rabbi is considered one of the most important Jewish positions in the UK. The chief rabbi is invited to all state ceremonies, and the previous two chief rabbis were conferred the title of lord. The first chief rabbi, Rabbi Aaron Hart, was appointed in 1703.

The East End is an area east of the City of London, where, in the first half of the twentieth century, a large and dense population of Jewish immigrants from Russia lived.

The United Synagogue is a union of British Orthodox synagogues and the largest synagogue body in Europe. It began operating in 1870, headed by Rabbi Nathan Marcus Adler, and received the approval of the British parliament. Today, the United Synagogue comprises 62 Orthodox Jewish congregations, runs and supports many charitable and educational enterprises, and oversees religious matters such as kashrut.

A word used to describe Jew-hatred from the end of the nineteenth century. The literal meaning of the term is hatred of all the Semitic nations; however, in reality, it was solely intended to describe hatred of the Jews. Antisemitism was based on the classical hatred of Jews but also included non-religious aspects that were influenced by ideas of nationalism and racism.

An imagery of a social group based on prominent or exaggerated features and creating a generalisation of this group. This generalisation is often the basis for prejudice.

A word used to describe Jew-hatred from the end of the nineteenth century. The literal meaning of the term is hatred of all the Semitic nations; however, in reality, it was solely intended to describe hatred of the Jews. Antisemitism was based on the classical hatred of Jews but also included non-religious aspects that were influenced by ideas of nationalism and racism.

Anti-Jewish riots that erupted in various locations in Germany in 1819. The riots are so called because of the cry of the perpetrators: “Hepp! Hepp! Death to the Jews.” The term “Hepp” is said to be an acronym of the Latin words “Hierosolyma Est Perdita” meaning Jerusalem is lost. These riots broke out after the convention of the Congress of Vienna with its desire to restore the old conservative order from before the Napoleonic Wars. The Vienna Congress reintroduced sentiments of nationalism, which included viewing Jews as outsiders who were trying to dominate the world and harm society.

The Pale of Settlement was the region in the western part of the Russian Empire where the Jews were allowed to live.  The Pale included Belarus, Lithuania, Moldova, much of Ukraine, Eastern Latvia, Eastern Poland and parts of Western Russia. The boundaries of the Pale of Settlement were first determined in 1791 following the division of Poland and changed according to the Tzar’s policies. Even within the Pale of Settlement, there were restrictions on Jewish settlement. In some cases, villages were off-limits to Jews, who were forced to live in the towns and cities; in other cases, it was the opposite. Jews were forced to live in the Pale of Settlement and prohibited from living in other regions of the Russian Empire until the beginning of World War I and the fall of the Russian Empire.

A violent riot against an ethnic or religious group, most frequently the Jews. The word pogrom, from the Russian word meaning destruction or devastation, was used to describe the attacks on Jews in the Pale of Settlement in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries.

The villain of William Shakespeare’s play The Merchant of Venice. Shylock, a Jew, is a ruthless and greedy moneylender, in accordance with the traditional stereotype of Jews. It is interesting to note that the play was written in the sixteenth century, when Jews were not allowed to live in England; therefore, the only knowledge that Shakespeare had of Jews was from myths and stereotypes. While some view this play as a plea for tolerance, this character was undeniably influenced by antisemitic stereotypes and fed negative views of Jews in the ensuing centuries.

Migration is the movement of a population from one country to another with the intention of settling. Immigration and emigration describe the direction of movement, with people emigrating from their country of origin and immigrating to a new country.

Push and pull factors are the reasons why people decide to migrate. Push factors are associated with one’s place of origin and include, for example, overpopulation, an absence of jobs, low wages, intolerance towards a certain ethnic minority and active religious persecution. Pull factors are associated with one’s destination and include, for example, better job opportunities, higher wages, the promise of a “better life” and principles of religious tolerance.

The Lower East Side is a neighbourhood in the southeastern part of Manhattan, New York City, where Jewish immigrants from Eastern Europe lived in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Although living conditions on the Lower East Side were difficult and population density was very high, many synagogues were built and an extensive Yiddish culture developed.

Forverts was a Yiddish newspaper first published in New York in 1897. The name Forverts (Forward) expressed the socialist worldview of Abraham Kahan, one of the founders of the newspaper and editor-in-chief for 43 years. The newspaper reported news of the world in general and the Jewish world in particular and gained great popularity among Eastern European Jewish immigrants in the United States. As of spring 2019, The Forward stopped appearing in print and became a digital media outlet in both English and Yiddish.

Jewish immigration to America began in the early nineteenth century, with about a quarter of a million Jews arriving from, mainly, Germany and Austria. After the pogroms in the Russian Empire, the number of immigrants increased greatly, and between 1881 and 1914 more than two million Jews immigrated to America, mostly from Russia. Although Jewish immigration was part of a general wave of immigration, it had unique characteristics, which included the prevalence of families immigrating together.

Migration is the movement of a population from one country to another with the intention of settling. Immigration and emigration describe the direction of movement, with people emigrating from their country of origin and immigrating to a new country.

Push and pull factors are the reasons why people decide to migrate. Push factors are associated with one’s place of origin and include, for example, overpopulation, an absence of jobs, low wages, intolerance towards a certain ethnic minority and active religious persecution. Pull factors are associated with one’s destination and include, for example, better job opportunities, higher wages, the promise of a “better life” and principles of religious tolerance.

The First Aliyah refers to the wave of immigrants who arrived in the Land of Israel between 1881 and 1903. During these years, 25,000 Jews arrived in Israel, mostly from Russia and Romania. The name, the First Aliyah, refers to the fact that this was the first immigration wave motivated by a national Zionist ideology in contrast to previous immigrants who arrived with religious motives. The First Aliyah was mainly a result of the 1881 pogroms (Sufot BaNegev) and later, anti-Jewish decrees in Russia and the expulsion of the Jews from Moscow in 1891. Most of the new immigrants settled in cities but some founded agricultural villages (moshavot) including Rishon LeZion, Zichron Ya’akov and Yesod HaMa’aleh. During these years, Jews from Yemen also immigrated to Israel, and many of them worked in the new moshavot.

AHovevei Zion is an umbrella movement uniting around sixty Jewish organisations that were established in Eastern Europe at the end of the nineteenth century. The goal of Hovevei Zion (Lovers of Zion) was to bring about the national rebirth of the Jewish people by settling in the Land of Israel and living a life based on labour and agriculture.

Moshava is a type of agricultural settlement founded during the time of the Ottoman Empire by members of the Old Yishuv and members of Hovevei Zion who arrived in Israel in the First and Second Aliyah. The land and property of the moshavot were privately owned. The first moshava was Petach Tikva, founded in 1878, followed by Rishon Lezion, Rosh Pina, Zichron Ya’akov, Yesod HaMa’aleh and many others. Many of the first moshavot faced difficulties due to the settlers’ lack of agricultural experience and financial resources as well as problems caused by climate, disease and attacks by the Ottoman rulers. The struggling moshavot  were greatly assisted by Baron Edmund de Rothschild who provided financial support and agricultural experts. Many of these moshavot became modern Israel’s main cities.

Nationalism is the desire to give expression to a sense of belonging to the nation within a political framework. Nationalism develops when a group that has common characteristics or values works to fulfil its aspirations within a national movement. Nationalism can be based on common ethnic foundations such as origin, language, culture, history, religion or on aspirations for a state based on common value.

The New Yishuv  describes the immigrants who moved to the Land of Israel during the waves of Zionist immigration and established colonies. These immigrants sought to establish Jewish settlement in Israel based on productive work, and some also wanted to establish a secular national Jewish society. Many settled in the city of Jaffa, which became the centre of the New Yishuv.

The Old Yishuv describes the Jews who lived in the Land of Israel in the nineteenth century, mainly in the so-called four holy cities: Jerusalem, Hebron, Safed and Tiberias. Most of the Jews lived off donations sent by Jews abroad who believed that the purpose of living in the Land of Israel was to study Torah. Only a few members of the Yishuv (mainly from the Sephardi community) attempted to make a living from handicrafts and trade. However, from the second half of the nineteenth century, members of the Old Yishuv bought land, established new neighbourhoods and published newspapers.

The Second Aliyah refers to the second wave of Zionist immigrants who arrived in the Land of Israel between 1904 and 1914. During these years, 35,000 Jews arrived in Israel, mostly from Poland and Russia, comprising many young, secular, single people who arrived without their families. Many of these young immigrants were inspired by their belief in socialism and Jewish labour and agriculture to organise themselves into cooperative rural settlements (kvutzot - the prototypes of the kibbutz). They also believed in Hebrew culture and language in the Land of Israel, and it was during this period that the first Hebrew city, Tel Aviv, was founded.

Zionism is the national movement of the Jewish people whose main aspiration is to return to the Land of Israel and establish a sovereign state there. The Zionist idea emerged in the middle of the nineteenth century, influenced by the national struggles of other peoples. It manifested itself in the establishment of associations that bought land in the Land of Israel and the establishment of the Zionist movement.

Altneuland is a utopian novel written in German by Theodor Herzl in 1902. In Altneuland  (Old New Land) Herzl described life in the Land of Israel twenty years after receiving a permit for Jewish settlement. The novel offers a plan for the realisation of Jewish national emancipation and depicts a model society based on liberal and egalitarian principles. The book was later translated into Hebrew and named Tel Aviv. The book opens with Herzl’s famous words, “If you will it, it is no dream.”

The Basel Program is a summary of the decisions made at the First Zionist Congress on the purpose of Zionism. According to the Basel Program, “Zionism seeks to secure for the Jewish people a publicly recognised, legally assured homeland in the Land of Israel.” The word “homeland” was used rather than state in an attempt to prevent opposition from the Ottoman authorities; nonetheless, the reference was to a Jewish state that would gain international recognition. The means for achieving this goal were also outlined and included the establishment of the Zionist Organisation, whose role would be to concentrate the Zionist effort on immigration, settlement and land acquisition in the Land of Israel and on obtaining the charter from world governments.

Der Judenstaat is a book written in German by Theodor Herzl in 1869. The full title of the book is The Jewish State: Proposal of a Modern Solution for the Jewish Question. In this book, Herzl asserted that the Jews are a nation and that the solution to Jewish existence is, consequently, political.  The world should, therefore, support the Jewish people’s right to their own territory in which they could establish a Jewish state. Herzl detailed the way to implement this national programme and the nature of the future state. The book was printed in many copies and editions and translated into many languages.

Political Zionism worked to gain recognition by the superpowers of a charter giving the Jews the right to settle in the Land of Israel. This was the approach of Theodor Herzl, who opposed gradual immigration to the Land of Israel without the consent of the authorities. He believed that while infiltration into the country might be suitable for individuals, it was not a solution for the entire nation. Herzl met with various leaders to persuade them to grant this charter.

Practical Zionism was a concept advocating immigration and settlement in the Land of Israel, even without legal approval or a political framework. The advocates of practical Zionism claimed that the establishment of settlements and the increase in the number of Jews in the Land of Israel would establish a fact, which would be followed by world recognition of the right of the Jews to a homeland while also addressing the plight of Jews in various countries.

The proto-Zionists were three personalities – Rabbi Yehuda Alkalai, Rabbi Zvi Kalisher and the philosopher Moshe Hess – who lived and worked in Europe from the 1840s and preceded the ideas and actions of the Zionist movement led by Theodor Herzl. Influenced by the national struggles of the Balkan and Polish peoples and the struggle for the unification of Italy, they believed that the Jewish people should immigrate to the Land of Israel and work for the establishment of a Jewish state.

The Uganda Scheme was a proposal in 1903 by Joseph Chamberlain, the British colonial secretary, to lease land in East Africa (modern-day Kenya) to the Jews for the establishment of a self-ruling colony. Herzl, seeing the plight of Russian Jewry, brought this proposal to the Sixth Zionist Congress, stressing that it was a temporary solution for the persecuted Jewish people until a Jewish state could be founded in the Land of Israel. The proposal caused an outburst of emotions, with many seeing it as a betrayal of Zionist ideology. As a result, this congress was dubbed the “Congress of Tears.” The Uganda proposal was rejected at the Seventh Zionist Congress, which convened in 1905, a year after Herzl’s death.

The World Zionist Congress is the highest institution of the Zionist movement where decisions are made regarding its activities. The First Zionist Congress convened in Basel, Switzerland in 1897 at the initiative of Theodor Herzl, with the purpose of formulating the goals of Zionism. Today, the World Zionist Congress convenes in Jerusalem once every five years and is attended by delegates from all over the world.

The Zionist Movement refers to the modern national movement of the Jewish people. The Zionist idea, the aspiration of the Jewish people for a Jewish homeland in the Land of Israel, spread at the end of the nineteenth century under the influence of other national movements of the time. In 1897, the first Zionist Congress was convened in Basel and the Zionist movement’s institutions were founded.

The Balfour Declaration was issued by the British government on November 2, 1917 in a letter sent by British Foreign Secretary Arthur James Balfour to Lord Lionel Walter Rothschild, a leader of the Jewish community. The Balfour Declaration stated that: “His Majesty's government view with favour the establishment in Palestine of a national home for the Jewish people, and will use their best endeavours to facilitate the achievement of this object.” On the basis of the declaration, Britain received the mandate for Palestine.

The Ottoman Empire, established in the thirteenth century and named after its founder Osman I, ended during World War I. For about 450 years, the empire controlled large areas of Europe, the Middle East and North Africa, including the Land of Israel. The empire reached great heights: for example, in the sixteenth century, in the days of Suleiman the Magnificent, who was responsible for building the walls of the Old City of Jerusalem. There were also downturns: for example, in the nineteenth century, when European powers took advantage of the empire’s weakness, took control of various areas, and accelerated its disintegration.

This term refers to the years 1918–1939, the years from the end of World War I to the outbreak of World War II. During these years a civil war broke out in Russia, new countries emerged from the ruins of empires and the borders in Europe and the Middle East were reshaped. Many countries experienced economic crises and the development of totalitarian regimes. Alongside all this were important developments in the field of air and road transportation, a flourishing of art and culture and recognition of the right of national self-determination.

After World War I, the victorious states divided among themselves the territories that had previously been under the control of the Ottoman Empire. The territories were given the status of a mandate (power of attorney) for a limited time while being trained for independence. France received a mandate for Syria and Lebanon and Britain received a mandate for Iraq and Palestine. The British mandate also included the Balfour Declaration, thus giving the document legal and international validity.

This term means literally a closed or limited number. It was used to describe the policy of limiting the percentage of Jews who could be admitted to high schools and universities. This restriction began in Russia in the nineteenth century and was implemented in many European countries during the interwar years: for example, Hungary in 1920, Poland in 1923 and Romania in 1924.

Agudas Israel was a party founded in Katowice in southern Poland in 1912 by orthodox Jews from Germany, Hungary, Russia and Poland. Its adherents opposed the Zionist movement’s preoccupation with education and culture and worked to strengthen religious fervour, believing in the Torah as the basis of life for the Jewish people. At the party’s founding conference, the Council of Torah Scholars was appointed the ruling body in all party matters. Agudas Israel did not oppose immigration to the Land of Israel but refused to join the Zionist movement due to both the secular nature of Zionism and the party’s objection to the establishment of a sovereign state before the coming of the messiah. In the 1930s, mainly because of the growing persecution of European Jewry, there was a gradual rapprochement between Agudas Israel and the Yishuv. Since the establishment of the State of Israel, the party has participated in the Knesset elections in contrast to ultra-Orthodox Jews who boycott the elections.

Akiva, a Zionist youth movement for traditional Jews, was founded in 1924 in Krakow, Poland. It was the largest Jewish youth movement in Poland before the Holocaust. The movement sought to cultivate an affinity for Jewish tradition and Jewish history among its members and included the study of the Bible, the observance of the Shabbat and holidays and even prayer in its curriculum.

A network of ultra-Orthodox girls’ schools that was first founded by Sarah Schenirer in Krakow in 1918. She established the schools in order to combat the high rate of assimilation among Jewish girls who attended non-Jewish schools because there were no Jewish schools for girls. Despite facing many obstacles, Schenirer finally received support from Hasidic rabbis of the time. Today Bais Yaakov schools are mainstream institutions for girl’s education in ultra-Orthodox communities.

Betar is a youth movement that was established in the city of Riga in the Soviet Union in 1923. Founded by Ze’ev Jabotinsky, Betar is based on the ideas of the revisionist movement. Members of the movement organised in battalions, wore semi-military uniforms and conducted drills and ceremonies. Menachem Begin was the head of the Betar movement in Poland, until he immigrated to Israel in 1942.

The Bund was a Jewish socialist party founded in Vilnius (Vilna) in 1897. Its name is an abbreviation of the Yiddish name for the General Federation of Jewish Workers in Lithuania, Poland and Russia. The Bund’s activities were conducted in Yiddish, the language of the Jewish masses, and it worked for cultural autonomy for Jews in their countries of residence. The Bund opposed the Zionist idea of ​​concentrating the Jews in their own land and saw the Zionist movement as representing the Jewish bourgeoisie while they represented the Jewish proletariat.

This is the word used for Talmud Torah schools, institutions that existed in all Jewish communities where Jewish boys learned to read the Bible and pray so that they could join prayers in the synagogue. In addition to Jewish studies, the children also learned basic arithmetic in the cheder. Boys studied in the cheder from the age of three or four until their bar mitzvah at 13. In Muslim countries, these Talmud Torah schools were known as kuttab or kanis.

The Gordonia youth movement began organising in Eastern Galicia in 1923. It was a socialist Zionist movement that drew its values ​​from the teachings of A.D. Gordon on the importance of farming and the connection between manual labour and the land.

The Hashomer Hatzair youth movement was the first Zionist Jewish youth movement, emerging in Galicia in 1913 and later spreading throughout Poland. Its ideology is based on three basic values, Zionism, socialism and camaraderie, and the movement thus directed members to immigrate to the Land of Israel and join a kibbutz. In the 1930s its activity base gradually transferred from Poland to Israel, as most of its leaders in Poland immigrated to Israel. 

Hechalutz, literally the pioneer, was a global youth movement of young Jews who were preparing themselves for immigration to Israel and life as pioneers. While the first group dates back to 1905 in Odessa, the main impact of the movement was after World War I. Hechalutz set up a training farm where candidates for immigration to the Land of Israel could experience agricultural work and a cooperative life as well as learning Hebrew. They immigrated in groups, not as individuals, and knowledge of Hebrew was a requirement for their immigration.

Poalei Zion was a socialist Zionist political party founded in Russia in 1906 as part of a larger international movement. The party sought to combine two ideologies: nationalism and socialism. Early on, its members advocated a class war in Israel, which would lead to the creation of a new world with a socialist Zionist society based on justice and equality. Over time, Poalei Zion changed its focus and supported Jewish workers. In Israel, the party published a newspaper called HaAchdut (The Unity) and cared for workers by setting up labour unions, soup kitchens and health services.

The Revisionist movement was founded by Ze’ev Jabotinsky following the rejection of his request for a “revision” of the mainstream ideology of practical Zionism, namely, a re-examination of the ways in which the Zionist movement was operating. His proposals to take a clear and firm line against British policy in Israel were not accepted by the Executive Council of the Zionist Organization. He therefore withdrew his membership and, in 1925, formed the Revisionist Zionist Alliance as a movement advocating a political and military struggle for the establishment of a Jewish state in the Land of Israel on both banks of the Jordan River.

A network of secular, Zionist, Hebrew-language schools that were established in Poland and other parts of the former Pale of Settlement. The Tarbut (meaning culture in Hebrew) network was founded in 1917, and by 1939 more than 45,000 students had enrolled in its 270 educational institutions including kindergartens, primary schools, high schools, vocational schools, adult educational courses and teacher training programmes. It even had libraries and a publishing house that published teaching materials and children’s newspapers. Tuition in the Tarbut schools took place in Hebrew and the curriculum comprised both general and Jewish studies.  World War II and the Holocaust brought an end to the Tarbut schools.

In 1933, shortly after the Nazis came to power in Germany, concentration camps were established as places to which opponents of the regime, including many Jews, were sent. The first concentration camp was established in Dachau, Germany, and was soon followed by others. It is estimated that between 2.5 and 3.5 million prisoners were held in concentration camps. During World War II, concentration camps were established in occupied Europe; some concentration camps were turned into forced labour camps or extermination camps. One single camp such as Auschwitz could contain a concentration camp, a forced labour camp and an extermination camp.

Although there were many instances during World War II of Nazis leading concentration camp prisoners on long distance marches in inhumane conditions, the term “death march” refers to the evacuation of the ghettos and camps in the final stages of the war. The Nazis led starving Jewish and non-Jewish prisoners on foot through the snow away from the camps and the approaching Allied Forces and towards Germany. Anyone who stumbled or fell behind was shot by the guards. It is estimated that about a quarter of a million people perished in the death marches.

Einsatzgruppen were special units that accompanied the German Army as they conquered new territory  in order to eliminate those who were considered ideological enemies by the Nazis. During the German invasion of the Soviet Union in June 1941, four Einsatzgruppen units were tasked with murdering all of the Jews. The Einsatzgruppen led the Jews out of the city, forced them to dig pits, and shot them into the pits. Particularly well-known is the Babi Yar massacre in which about 34,000 Jews were murdered in two days.

This was an international conference held in July 1938 in the French resort town of Evian in an attempt to find a solution to the plight of Jewish refugees from Germany and Austria. All of the participating countries refused to take in refugees, offering various excuses such as, in the case of Australia, the reluctance to important the problem of racism from which the Australians did not suffer. Only one country, the Dominican Republic, expressed a willingness to absorb the Jews and offered land for their agricultural settlement. The conference made it clear to the Jews that the world would not provide them with refuge and to Hitler that the world would do nothing to save the Jews.

At the end of 1941, extermination camps were set up in Poland with one goal: the murder of men, women and children. Some existing concentration camps were converted into extermination camps or had a structure designated for extermination added. Most of the Jews who were deported to extermination camps were killed on arrival with a small minority kept alive to be employed in the camp’s work. The murder in these camps began on December 8, 1941 in Chelmno, using gas trucks. Later, gas chambers and crematoria were built. The largest extermination camp was Auschwitz-Birkenau, where between 1.2 and 1.5 million Jews and tens of thousands of Soviet gypsies and prisoners of war were killed.

The Final Solution was the name used by the Nazis for their program of systematic mass murder of the Jews. It was used as a code name to disguise the idea of​​extermination, which began with the invasion of the Soviet Union in June 1941.

Ghetto is an Italian word that indicates a neighbourhood or street where Jews lived during the Middle Ages to distinguish them from the surrounding society. During the Nazi period, the ghetto was not a place of residence but a stage in the Nazis’ solution to the “Jewish problem.” The ghettos were small living areas enclosed by a fence or wall where harsh living conditions, such as extreme population density and famine, led to the deaths of hundreds of thousands of inhabitants. As of 1942, Jews living in the ghettos were sent to extermination camps.

The word Holocaust, Shoah in Hebrew, means a great disaster, and it is thus used to denote the murder of six million Jews by the Nazis, the greatest disaster in the history of the Jewish people. The Holocaust took place during World War II from 1939 to 1945, but the persecution of German Jews began immediately after the Nazis came to power in 1933.

Named for the shattered glass of synagogue windows and shops, the Kristallnacht pogrom took place on November 9–10, 1938. During the pogrom, 91 Jews were killed, about 400 synagogues were set on fire, and about 7,500 Jewish shops and businesses were damaged. Jewish cemeteries were desecrated and more than 30,000 Jewish men were captured and sent to concentration camps. The Jews were, subsequently, obliged to finance the damage. Kristallnacht was a turning point in terms of the extent of violence and is seen as a precursor of what was to become of the Jews in Germany.

The Nuremberg Laws were enacted in the city of Nuremberg in Germany on September 15, 1935 and served as a legal basis for the expulsion of Jews from all walks of life.  The first law, the Citizenship Law, stipulated that only Germans or those with “German blood” could be citizens of Germany and thus abolished the previous emancipation of German Jews. The second law was a law to protect German blood and German dignity and forbade any contact that might harm the purity of the Aryan race. Regulations associated with these laws defined Jews on the basis of race and not religion.

This conference was held on January 20, 1942 in Wannsee, a suburb of Berlin. The purpose of the conference was to coordinate between various bodies issues relating to the murder of the Jews, which had already begun in the occupied territories of the Soviet Union. The invitation to the conference stated that its subject was “the final solution to the problem of the Jews,” and it was attended by senior officials in the various government ministries. The minutes of the conference do not explicitly show use of the word “extermination” but report on the evacuation of the Jews to the East and on “forced labor in which...the majority died.” They hint that Jews should not be left alive, even in countries not yet occupied.

Judenrat, literally “the council of Jews,” was the Jewish body that organised life in the ghettos. The Nazis set up the Judenrat in order to have a body that was responsible for carrying out their orders, punishing those who violated them, and later, preparing the lists of the Jews to be sent to the extermination camps. Among the members of the Judenrat were former leaders of the Jewish community or well-known public figures. They felt responsible for the fate of their fellow Jews and sought to make life easier in the ghetto. Later, the Germans also appointed people from the margins of Jewish society to the Judenrat. The latter carried out orders and collaborated with the Nazis.

According to Nazi racial theory, people of Aryan descent, namely, the Germans, the English, and the nations of northern Europe, are a superior race. The Nazis believed that Aryans, with their light hair and eyes, possess the traits of courage and self-sacrifice, thanks to which they should rule the world, with other races as their slaves. This distorted view was behind the desire to increase the lebensraum (living space) that the German people needed, namely, to occupy territories outside Germany.

The word Gestapo was the name used to refer to the German secret police, the Nazis’ main instrument of oppression. The Gestapo had broad powers to act against anyone considered an “enemy of the state” and to send them to concentration camps. The Gestapo, with its particularly cruel interrogation methods, played a central role in the implementation of the Final Solution.

The Kindertransport was a rescue operation for European Jewish children on the eve of World War II. From December 1938 to August 1939 approximately 10,000 Jewish children were sent from Germany, Austria and the Czech Republic, to, mostly, Britain but also the United States, Switzerland and Sweden. While the separation of the children from their parents was unbearable, it ultimately saved their lives.

The idea to mark the Jews first surfaced after Kristallnacht but was only implemented in September 1939. With the conquest of Poland, the Nazis issued instructions requiring Jews to wear a “yellow badge” – a yellow hexagonal piece of cloth with the word “Jude” (Jew) written in black. The goal was to facilitate the identification of Jews at all times and in all places. This was not the first time that Jews had to bear a mark that would distinguish them from the surrounding society. In the Middle Ages, hats worn by Jews were different in shape or colour from those worn by other members of society.

The Arab residents of Palestine (pre-state Israel) held a series of riots and demonstrations against the Jewish community. The riots began on August 23, 1929 and lasted for a week, during which time 133 Jews were killed and 339 injured. Various Jewish communities were abandoned and destroyed, including the Jewish community in Hebron. The justification for the riots was the violation of the status quo at the Western Wall and the harm caused to the holy places of Islam.

After World War I, the victorious states divided among themselves the territories that had previously been under the control of the Ottoman Empire. The territories were given the status of a mandate (power of attorney) for a limited time while being trained for independence. France received a mandate for Syria and Lebanon and Britain received a mandate for Iraq and Palestine. The British mandate also included the Balfour Declaration, thus giving the document legal and international validity.

A white paper is a document that represents a position or policy on a particular issue. The British government published various white papers on the question of Palestine. The white papers of 1922, 1930 and 1939 are especially well-known for their restrictions on the immigration of Jews to Palestine.

The Yishuv is the term used to refer to the Jewish population living in Palestine during the years of the British Mandate. The Yishuv was an organised entity with elected institutions, such as the National Committee and the Chief Rabbinate, that were recognised by the British authorities.

The Haganah was the largest military organisation of the Yishuv during the British Mandate period. Following the 1929 riots and the Arab revolt of 1936–1939, the Haganah grew into a national organisation that later served as the foundation of the Israel Defense Forces  (IDF). During World War II many Haganah members enlisted in the British Army, participated in the struggle to bring illegal immigrants to Palestine and helped expand Jewish settlements.

The Histadrut (Israel’s trade union movement) was established during the Third Aliyah to help immigrants find jobs and protect their rights. It set up factories and helped immigrants acquire a profession and learn the Hebrew language. It also established a health fund (Clalit), a cooperative association for the marketing of agricultural products (Tnuva), a paving and construction company (Solel Boneh), an insurance company (Hasneh), a  bank (Bank Hapoalim), public libraries, sport associations (Hapoel) and more.

On November 29, 1947, the General Assembly of the United Nations voted in favour of the Partition Plan for Palestine (Resolution 181). In total, 33 countries voted in favour, 13 against, and 10, including Britain, abstained. Jews the world over celebrated the result, with many members of the Yishuv dancing in the streets to express their joy at the establishment of a Jewish state.

The Jewish Agency was established in 1929 to represent the Yishuv to the British Mandate authorities and to organise Jewish life in preparation for the establishment of the Jewish state. Until the establishment of the state, the Jewish Agency served as a quasi-governmental body.  It fought the British immigration restrictions, organised the recruitment of members of the Yishuv into the British Army and established about 1000 Jewish settlements throughout the country. After the establishment of the State of Israel, the Jewish Agency handed over its governmental functions to the Israeli government, and today it serves as a bridge between the Jewish people and the State of Israel.

This was a plan to establish two independent states in Palestine, a Jewish state and an Arab state, which was recommended by most members of the United Nations Special Committee on Palestine (UNSCOP). Jerusalem and its environs would be declared territory under international supervision. The Yishuv accepted the Partition Plan, although it gave them less land than promised by the League of Nations in 1922. The Arabs rejected the Partition Plan and launched attacks on the Yishuv, thus initiating the War of Independence.

The Arch of Titus was built in Rome in approximately 81 CE in honour of Titus’ victory over the Jews in the Great Revolt, which ended in 70 CE with the destruction of the Second Temple. The inner panel of the arch is decorated with engraved inscriptions and paintings depicting the transport of captured holy vessels from the Temple in Jerusalem to Rome. The construction of the arch illustrates the importance of this victory for the Romans.

By the end of World War II, between seven and nine million people had been displaced from occupied Europe. Most of them were returned to their countries, and the remaining two million were temporarily housed in the DP (displaced persons) camps set up by the Allies. Only a small number of Jews were among the DPs, but they received much attention because they had nowhere to go. Immigration laws prevented them from entering the United States, and the British White Paper policy restricted their immigration to Palestine. It was this reality that led the Jewish DPs to try and reach Palestine on illegal immigrant ships, thus drawing the world’s attention to the fate of the Jews after the Holocaust.